EDUCATIONAL POLICY REFORM AND TEACHER WORKFORCE GOVERNANCE: EXPLAINING THE CONTINUED DEPLOYMENT OF NON-OPTION ENGLISH TEACHERS IN MALAYSIA

Abstract

Effective educational reform depends not only on curriculum innovation but also on an effective teacher workforce, government, and policy implementation. Despite major English-language reforms introduced through the Malaysian Education Blueprint (2013–2025) and the English Language Education Roadmap (2015–2025), and the adoption of the CEFR, Malaysian schools continue to rely on non-option English teachers (NOETs). The continued utilisation of non-option English teachers (NOETs) in Malaysian schools is a significant obstacle to educational quality and equity, notwithstanding over ten years of policy reforms designed to enhance English language education. While prior studies primarily examine the pedagogical, linguistic, and professional challenges experienced by NOETs, limited attention has been given to the educational management and workforce governance factors that sustain this practice. This study, therefore, aims to explain how educational policy reform, workforce governance, and implementation processes contribute to the continued deployment of NOETs in Malaysian schools. Utilising a qualitative process-tracing methodology, the study analyses policy documents, government reports, and academic literature to elucidate the causal relationships among educational reforms, workforce planning strategies, and teacher deployment outcomes. The findings indicate that although reforms have enhanced expectations for teacher competency and curriculum standards, structural weaknesses in workforce forecasting, teacher distribution, recruitment, and implementation capacity continue to contribute to teacher shortages.  They have been less successful in addressing structural challenges in teacher supply, workforce forecasting, rural teacher distribution, and implementation capacity. As a result, school administrators rely on NOETs as operational responses to workforce constraints rather than as intended policy outcomes. The continued deployment of NOETs reflects a challenge in workforce governance and policy implementation rather than merely a teacher competency issue. These findings extend educational management literature by demonstrating how workforce governance influences policy implementation and teacher deployment during educational reform.